what is computer data?
1.)Some special of data are distinguished.A computer program is a collection of data,which can be interpreted as instructions.
2.)It is useful to distinguish metadata,that is,a description of other data.
3.Relative to today's computer and transmission media,data is imformation converted into binary digital form.
4.)In computer component interconnection and network commucation,data is often distinguished from "control information","control bits."and similar terms to identify the main content of a trasmission unit.
5.)In computer terminology,data often refers to user and configuration files.
6.)Data security measures must be taken when certain types of sensitive information are stored on the computer.
7.)Additionally,data backup strategies are often implemented to prevent accidental or intentional data loss.
=Linear & non linear=
Answer:
Concepts in Complex Systems
Yaneer Bar-Yam
Linear and Nonlinear
The concept of linear relationship suggests that two quantities are proportional to each other: doubling one causes the other to double as well.
Linear relationships are often the first approximation used to describe any relationship, even though there is no unique way to define what a linear relationship is in terms of the underlying nature of the quantities. For example, a linear relationship between the height and weight of a person is different than a linear relationship between the volume and weight of a person. The second relationship makes more sense, but both are linear relationships, and they are, of course, incompatible with each other. Medications, especially for children, are often prescribed in proportion to weight. This is an example of a linear relationship.
Nonlinear relationships, in general, are any relationship which is not linear. What is important in considering nonlinear relationships is that a wider range of possible dependencies is allowed. When there is very little information to determine what the relationship is, assuming a linear relationship is simplest and thus, by Occam's razor, is a reasonable starting point. However, additional information generally reveals the need to use a nonlinear relationship.
Many of the possible nonlinear relationships are still monotonic. This means that they always increase or decrease but not both. Monotonic changes may be smooth or they may be abrupt. For example, a drug may be ineffective up until a certain threshold and then become effective. However, nonlinear relationships can also be non-monotonic. For example, a drug may become progressively more helpful over a certain range, but then may become harmful. Thus the degree of help increases and decreases and this is a non-monotonic, as well as a nonlinear, relationship.
Even when a relationship is monotonic, and the changes in one quantity are smoothly related to the changes in the other quantity a linear relationship is not always the best approximation. It is often useful to generalize to a power law relationship. In a power law relationship every time you double one quantity the other one is multiplied by a number which is not two, but it is always the same number. The dependencies of quantities in many complex systems have been found to be better approximated by power laws than by linear relationships. A power law is a more general form of relationship and for this reason alone it should be a better approximation. However, in many cases there are fundamental reasons for power law behavior in complex systems.
Related concepts: Nonlinear dynamics, power law
Copyright © 2000 Yaneer Bar-Yam All rights reserved.
Wednesday, November 19, 2008
Wednesday, November 12, 2008
116C Survey KH13
Structure of an Earth?
Answer:
Geophysics, which studies the physics of the Earth, has led to many significant discoveries about the Earth and its make-up. Seismologic studies of the Earth have uncovered new information about the interior of the Earth that has helped to give credence to plate tectonic theory.
Geophysical studies have revealed that the Earth has several distinct layers. Each of these layers has its own properties. The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. This comprises the continents and ocean basins. The crust has a variable thickness, being 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins. The crust is composed mainly of alumino-silicates.
The next layer is the mantle, which is composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. It is about 2900 km thick, and is separated into the upper and lower mantle. This is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic processes.
The last layer is the core, which is separated into the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The outer core is 2300 km thick and the inner core is 1200 km thick. The outer core is composed mainly of a nickel-iron alloy, while the inner core is almost entirely composed of iron. Earth's magnetic field is believed to be controlled by the liquid outer core.
The Earth is separated into layers based on mechanical properties in addition to composition. The topmost layer is the lithosphere, which is comprised of the crust and solid portion of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is divided into many plates that move in relation to each other due to tectonic forces. The lithosphere essentially floats atop a semi-liquid layer known as the asthenosphere. This layer allows the solid lithosphere to move around since the asthenosphere is much weaker than the lithosphere.
Structure of an Egg?
Answer:
The egg is a biological structure intended by nature for reproduction. It protects and provides a complete diet for the developing embryo, and serves as the principal source of food for the first few days of the chick's life. The egg is also one of the most nutritious and versatile of human foods.
When the egg is freshly laid, the shell is completely filled. The air cell is formed by contraction of the contents during cooling and by the loss of moisture. A high-quality egg has only a small air cell.
The yolk is well-centered in the albumen and is surrounded by the vitelline membrane, which is colorless. The germinal disc, where fertilization takes place, is attached to the yolk. On opposite sides of the yolk are two, twisted, whitish cord-like objects known as chalazae. Their function is to support the yolk in the center of the albumen. Chalazae may vary in size and density, but do not affect either cooking performance or nutritional value.
A large portion of the albumen is thick. Surrounding the albumen are two shell membranes and the shell itself. The shell contains several thousand pores that permit the egg to "breathe."
Answer:
Geophysics, which studies the physics of the Earth, has led to many significant discoveries about the Earth and its make-up. Seismologic studies of the Earth have uncovered new information about the interior of the Earth that has helped to give credence to plate tectonic theory.
Geophysical studies have revealed that the Earth has several distinct layers. Each of these layers has its own properties. The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. This comprises the continents and ocean basins. The crust has a variable thickness, being 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins. The crust is composed mainly of alumino-silicates.
The next layer is the mantle, which is composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. It is about 2900 km thick, and is separated into the upper and lower mantle. This is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic processes.
The last layer is the core, which is separated into the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The outer core is 2300 km thick and the inner core is 1200 km thick. The outer core is composed mainly of a nickel-iron alloy, while the inner core is almost entirely composed of iron. Earth's magnetic field is believed to be controlled by the liquid outer core.
The Earth is separated into layers based on mechanical properties in addition to composition. The topmost layer is the lithosphere, which is comprised of the crust and solid portion of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is divided into many plates that move in relation to each other due to tectonic forces. The lithosphere essentially floats atop a semi-liquid layer known as the asthenosphere. This layer allows the solid lithosphere to move around since the asthenosphere is much weaker than the lithosphere.
Structure of an Egg?
Answer:
The egg is a biological structure intended by nature for reproduction. It protects and provides a complete diet for the developing embryo, and serves as the principal source of food for the first few days of the chick's life. The egg is also one of the most nutritious and versatile of human foods.
When the egg is freshly laid, the shell is completely filled. The air cell is formed by contraction of the contents during cooling and by the loss of moisture. A high-quality egg has only a small air cell.
The yolk is well-centered in the albumen and is surrounded by the vitelline membrane, which is colorless. The germinal disc, where fertilization takes place, is attached to the yolk. On opposite sides of the yolk are two, twisted, whitish cord-like objects known as chalazae. Their function is to support the yolk in the center of the albumen. Chalazae may vary in size and density, but do not affect either cooking performance or nutritional value.
A large portion of the albumen is thick. Surrounding the albumen are two shell membranes and the shell itself. The shell contains several thousand pores that permit the egg to "breathe."
Friday, November 7, 2008
116C Survey#1
A. What is a computer system?
Answer: A complete, working computer. The computer system includes not only the computer, but also any software and peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. Every computer system, for example, requires an operating system.
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
B. What is a computer hardware?
Answer: A computer hardware are consist of motherboard, hard disk, CRT(cathode ray tube), printer, scanner, keyboard, mouse, joy stick, power supply and CPU.
Answer: A complete, working computer. The computer system includes not only the computer, but also any software and peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. Every computer system, for example, requires an operating system.
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
B. What is a computer hardware?
Answer: A computer hardware are consist of motherboard, hard disk, CRT(cathode ray tube), printer, scanner, keyboard, mouse, joy stick, power supply and CPU.
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